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Abessive

Comment:

AbessiveCase expresses the lack or absence of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning of the English preposition 'without' (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 3,35; Gove, et al. 1966: 3).

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Abilitive

Comment:

AbilitiveModality indicates the capacity of an agent to perform some action, regardless of type or condition.

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Ablative

Comment:

AblativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from'.

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Absolutive

Comment:

AbsolutiveCase in ergative-absolutive languages mark referents that would generally be the subjects of intransitive verbs or the objects of transitive verbs in the translational equivalents of nominative-accusative languages (Anderson 1985: 181; Crystal 1985: 1; Andrews and Avery 1985: 138).

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AbsolutiveAntipassive

Comment:

An Antipassive in which the P or logical object is suppressed or overtly absent. (Klaiman 1991:232)

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Abstract

Comment:

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Accusative

Comment:

AccusativeCase in nominative-accusative languages marks certain syntactic functions, usually direct objects (Hartmann and Stork 1972: 3,156; Crystal 1980: 11,246; Andrews and Avery 1985: 75; Anderson; 1985: 181; Mish et al. 1990: 50).

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Actional

Comment:

ActionalForce indicates that the speaker or hearer is to undertake some action. Subsumes Imperative, Commissive and Hortatory.

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Active

Comment:

Associated with transitivity, when the action is performed by an agent (subject) on another participant (object), or with intransitivity (McIntosh 1984:108). Refers to the category of underived verb forms associated with the basic diathesis: Diathesis=D0:(X=SUBabs/nom) (Y=DIROBacc)
(Shibatani 1995:7)

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Adessive

Comment:

AdessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location near/at which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'at' or 'near' (Crystal 1997: 8).

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Adjective

Comment:

An adjective is a part of speech whose members modify nouns. An adjective specifies the attributes of a noun referent. Note: this is one case among many. Adjectives are a class of modifiers (Crystal 1997:8; Mish et al. 1990:56; Payne 1997:63).

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Adposition

Comment:

An adposition is a part of speech whose members are of a closed set and occur before or after a complement composed of a noun phrase, noun, pronoun, or clause that functions as a noun phrase and forms a single structure with the complement to express its grammatical and semantic relation to another unit within a clause (Comrie 1989:91; Crystal 1997: 305; Mish et al. 1990:929; Payne 1997:86).

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Adverb

Comment:

An adverb, narrowly defined, is a part of speech whose members modify verbs for such categories as time, manner, place, or direction. An adverb, broadly defined, is is a part of speech whose members modify any constituent class of words other than nouns, such as verbs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Under this definition, the possible type of modification depends on the class of the constituent being modified (Crystal 1997:11; Mish et al. 1990:59; Payne 1997:69).

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AgentDeletionPassive

Comment:

The object of the active retains its old case-marking in the passive, the subject of the active cannot appear in the passive clause, and the passive tends to be semantically active.
(Givon 1988:419)

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Allative

Comment:

AllativeCase expresses motion to or toward the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 6,9,216; Lyons 1968: 299; Crystal 1985: 1213; Gove, et al. 1966: 55,2359).

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Animate

Comment:

One of the two grammatical genders, or classes of nouns, the other being inanimate. Membership in the animate grammatical class is largely based on meanings, in that living things, including humans, animals, spirits, trees, and most plants are included in the animate class of nouns (Valentine 2001: 114).

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Anticausative

Comment:

An intransitive verb is derived from a basically transitive one with the direct object of the transitive verb corresponding to the subject of the intransitive.
(Siewierska 1988:267)

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Antipassive

Comment:

Derives an intransitive verb from a transitive stem whereby the original agent (only) is cross-referrenced by the absolutive markers on the verb and the original patient, if it appears, is in an oblique phrase. (England 1983:110)

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Article

Comment:

An article is a member of a small class of determiners that identify a noun's definite or indefinite reference, and new or given status (Crystal 1997:26; Mish et al. 1990:105).

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AspectFeature

Comment:

Aspect is the grammatical encoding of various characteristics of the event referred to in an utterance. Aspect does not form a semantically contiguous class (Comrie 1976; Bybee 1985; Sasse 2002). Aspect indicates the temporal structure of an event, i. e. the way in which the event occurs in time (on-going or completed, beginning, continuing or ending, iterative or semelfactive, etc.). (Bhat 1999:43)

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AspectValue

Comment:

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Assumptive

Comment:

Assumptive encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through a possibly unsound inference procedure. That is, it is at least reasonalbe (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

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Auditory

Comment:

AuditoryEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through direct auditory experience; they heard it. This does not include spoken reported accounts, but only direct sensory evdience, such as the situation of 'hearing a tree fall' (Palmer 2001: 38).

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Augmentative

Comment:

A special form of a noun that signals that the object being referred to is large relative to the usual size of such an object (Crystal 1980: 34).

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Benefactive

Comment:

BenefactiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks receives the benefit of the situation expressed by the clause (Crystal 1980: 43; Gove, et al. 1966: 203).

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BoundRoot

Comment:

BoundRoot is the class of bound units whose members are common to a set of derived or inflected units, if any, when all bound units are removed. They are not further analyzable into meaningful elements, being morphologically simple. Also, they designate the principle portion of meaning of the unit to which it belongs (Crystal 1985:268; Hartmann and Stork 1972:199; Pei and Gaynor 1954:187-188; Mish et al. 1990:1023; Matthews 1991:64).

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BoundStem

Comment:

BoundStem is the class of units whose members are decomposable into a root or roots and a derivational unit, and are only expressed by bound forms in the language (Crystal 1985:287; Mish et al. 1990:1154).

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CardinalNumeral

Comment:

A cardinal numeral is a numeral of the class whose members are considered basic in form, are used in counting, and are used in expressing how many objects are referred to (Crystal 1997:52; Mish et al. 1990:207).

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CaseFeature

Comment:

Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship (syntactic or semantic) they bear to some other element in the sentence, such as a verb, noun, pronoun, or adposition(Pei and Gaynor 1954: 35; Crystal 1980: 5354; Anderson 1985: 179180; Andrews 1985: 7172; Mish et al. 1990: 211; Kuno 1973: 45; Blake 2001). CaseValue is the class of values that may be associated with the feature instance 'case'. CaseValue is the class of all case types found in language. Case is a system of marking dependent nouns for the type of relationship (syntactic or semantic) they bear to some other element in the sentence, such as a verb, noun, pronoun, or adposition(Pei and Gaynor 1954: 35; Crystal 1980: 5354; Anderson 1985: 179180; Andrews 1985: 7172; Mish et al. 1990: 211; Kuno 1973: 45; Blake 2001).

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CaseValue

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Causative

Comment:

Expressing the causation of an action.

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Character

Comment:

An elementary unit comprising SymbolicStrings. A single Character is also defined as a subclass of SymbolicString itself, e.g., the letter 'a', or a Chinese character.

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Classifier

Comment:

A classifier is a partOfSpeech whose members express the classification of a noun (Crystal 1997:61; Mish et al. 1990:246; Payne 1997:107).

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Clause

Comment:

A clause is a minimal sentential unit including a predicate, all arguments of the predicate, and all modifiers of the predicate and the arguments.

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Clitic

Comment:

Clitic is the class of units which members exhibit syntactic characteristics of a lexical unit, but show evidence of being morphologically bound to another lexical unit, the host, by being unstressed or subject to word-level phonological rules (Crystal 1980:64; Hartmann and Stork 1972:38; Anderson 1985:158; Klavans 1982: xi-xiv, 74-76,83,93-95,100-101; Zwicky 1977:5).

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CloseFuture

Comment:

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Comitative

Comment:

ComitativeCase expresses accompaniment. It carries the meaning 'with' or 'accompanied by' (Anderson, Stephen 1985: 186; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 42;Dixon, R. 1972: 12; Gove, et al. 1966: 455).

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Commissive

Comment:

CommisiveForce indicates that the speaker promises or threatens to perform some action (Palmer 2001: 10, 72).

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ComplexSpecification

Comment:

A ComplexSpecification is a kind of FeatureSpecification whose value must be a FeatureStructure. This class gives a feature system its recursive properites (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

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ComplexSyntacticWord

Comment:

A syntactic word that is morphologically complex, e.g., a compound, free stem, or inflected lexical item.

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Compound

Comment:

A compound has at least two roots. NOTE: more development here.

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ConditionalPhysicalAbilitive

Comment:

ConditionalPhysicalAbilitiveModality indicates ability of an agent to perform some action, requiring the presence of conditions external to the agent (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 177; Palmer 2001: 76)

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Connective

Comment:

Also known as a conjunction, a Connective is a class of parts of speech whose members syntactically link words or larger constituents, and expresses a semantic relationship between them. A conjunction is positionally fixed relative to one or more of the elements related by it, thus distinguishing it from constituents such as English conjunctive adverbs (Crystal 1997:81; Mish et al. 1990:277-278).

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Constituent

Comment:

A node in a StructuralDescription.

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Contablative

Comment:

ContablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from near which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from near'.

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Contallative

Comment:

ContallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the vicinity of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the vicinity of'.

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Conterminative

Comment:

ConterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the vicinity of the referent of the noun it marks, but not through that region. It has the meaning 'moving into the vicinity of'.

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Continuous

Comment:

Similar to progressive, however an aspect is continuous versus progressive when it is anchored to non-punctual time reference (Salaberry 2002:264).

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Contlative

Comment:

ContlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location in the vicinity of which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'in the vicinity of'.

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CoordinatingConnective

Comment:

A coordinating connective is a connective that links constituents without syntactically subordinating one to the other (Crystal 1997:93; Mish et al. 1990:288).

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CorrelativeConnective

Comment:

A correlative connective is either of a pair of coordinating conjunctions (connectives) used in ordered fashion. Typically, one is used immediately before each member of a pair of constituents (Crystal 1997:96; Mish et al. 1990:293).

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Dative

Comment:

DativeCase marks 1) Indirect objects (for languages in which they are held to exist) or 2) nouns having the role of recipient (as of things given), beneficiary of an action, or possessor of an item (Crystal 1980: 102; Gove, et al. 1966: 577).

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Declarative

Comment:

DeclarativeForce indicates that the speaker is informing the hearer about the content of what is said.

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Deductive

Comment:

DeductiveEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through a sound inference procedure. (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

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DefiniteArticle

Comment:

An definite article is a part of speech whose members refer to a specific, identifiable entity (or class of entities) (Crystal 1997:107).

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Delative

Comment:

DelativeCase expresses motion downward from the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 53; Gove, et al. 1966: 595).

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Demonstrative

Comment:

A demonstrative is a determiner that is used deictically to indicate a referent's spatial, temporal, or discourse location. A demonstrative functions as a modifier of a noun, or a pronoun (Crystal 1997:312; Mish et al. 1990:338).

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Deontic

Comment:

DeonticModality indicates that an agent has permission or is under an obligation to perform some action.

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DeponentMiddle

Comment:

Action denotes physical/mental disposition of subject. (Siewierska 1988:257)

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DerivationalUnit

Comment:

DerivationalUnit is the class of sublexical units whose members function to derive a new lexical unit from an existing one, by systematically changing the meaning and possibly altering the partOfSpeech feature of the Root or Stem it attaches to (Hartmann and Stork 1972:62; Crystal 1985:89; Mish et al. 1990:342; Bybee 1985:81-82, 99).

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DerivedWord

Comment:

A free form of a language consiting of a root or stem plus at least one derivational unit.

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Determiner

Comment:

A Determiner is a part of speech whose members belong to a class of noun modifiers and express the reference, including quantity, of a noun (Crystal 1997:112; Mish et al. 1990:346).

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Diminuative

Comment:

A special form of a noun that signals that the object being referred to is small relative to the usual size of such an object. In some cases it may be used as a term of endearment (Crystal 1980: 116).

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Direct

Comment:

DirectEvidential, also called sensory, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression by having direct sensory experience of some situation; this does not include hearing about it from someone else (Palmer 2001: 35-36).

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DirectVoice

Comment:

Signals that the action proceeds in an ontologically salient way, i.e. that salience is assigned to nominals based on their referen'ts relative real-world capacities to control situations. (Klaiman 1991:32)

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DistributiveNumeral

Comment:

A distributive numeral is a numeral which expresses a group of the number specified.

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DitransitiveVerb

Comment:

A ditransitive verb is a verb that takes two objects (Crystal 1997:397).

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Dual

Comment:

Dual refers to two members of a designated class (Crystal 1997: 265). It typically occurs in a number system together with Singular and LargePlural, or with Singular, Trial and Multal.

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Dubitive

Comment:

DubitiveMood indicates a speaker's doubt or uncertainty about a proposition (Palmer 2001).

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Durative

Comment:

Events which involve some duration (Bhat 1999:58).

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Elative

Comment:

ElativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location out of which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'out of' (Lyons 1968: 299; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 64; Crystal 1985: 106; Gove, et al. 1966: 730).

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EmphaticPronoun

Comment:

An emphatic pronoun is a personal pronoun that is used to emphasize its referent.

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Enclitic

Comment:

An enclitic is a clitic that is phonologically joined at the end of a preceding lexical unit to form a single phonological unit (Crystal 1980:64; Pei and Gaynor 1954:65; Mish et al. 1990:409).

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Entity

Comment:

The top class.

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Epistemic

Comment:

EpistemicModality indicates that a state of affairs is known to be possible or certain (necessary).

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EpistemicNecessity

Comment:

EpistemicNecessityModality indicates that the expressed proposition is known to be true. Also known as CategoricalModality (Palmer 2001: 37, 68-69).

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EpistemicPossibility

Comment:

EpistemicPossibilityModality indicates that the designated state of affairs is not known not to be true.

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Ergative

Comment:

ErgativeCase in ergative-absolutive languages generally identifies the subject of transitive verbs in the translation equivalents of nominative-accusative Languages such as English (Crystal 1980: 134; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 78; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 67; Andrews and Avery 1985: 138).

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Essive

Comment:

EssiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location at which another referent exists (Lyons 1968: 299,301; Gove, et al. 1966: 778; Crystal 1985: 112; Blake 1994: 154-5).

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EvaluativeFeature

Comment:

A feature associated with a nominal that generally indicates that the referent is viewed favorably or unfavorably by the speaker.

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EvaluativeValue

Comment:

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EvidentialityFeature

Comment:

Evidentiality is the system of indicating the basis of an agent's warrant for their belief in what they say. It is closely related to Mood, some of whose values indicate the strength of the agent's belief.

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EvidentialityValue

Comment:

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ExistentialMarker

Comment:

An existential marker is a partOfSpeech whose members are found in distinct clause types and which mark a referent's existence (Crystal 1997:142).

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Expletive

Comment:

An expletive (also known as a dummy word) is a part of speech whose members have no meaning, but complete a sentence to make it grammatical (Crystal 1997:127; Mish et al. 1990:437).

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FeatureConstraint

Comment:

A FeatureConstraint is a LinguisticDataStructure which groups a part of speech value with a set of features. Within a FeatureSystem of some language, it indicates which Features may be associated with a particular linguistic unit based on the unit's part of speech.

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FeatureSpecification

Comment:

A FeatureSpecification is a data structure that groups together a linguistic feature and with a value (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

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FeatureStructure

Comment:

A FeatureStructure is a set of one or more FeatureSpecifications. A FeatureStructure is a kind of information structure, a container or data structure, used to group together qualities or features of some object. In a grammatical feature system, a FeatureStructure holds the grammatical information associated with some linguistic unit. In a typed feature system, a FeatureStructure has an associated type, usually a PartOfSpeech. (Shieber 1986; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

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FeatureSystem

Comment:

FeatureSystem is a kind of LinguisticDataStructure that declares what kinds of FeatureStructures exist in the language. It can be assumed that only one feature system exists per language. A FeatureSystem consists of a set of FeatureConstraints (based on Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

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FeatureValue

Comment:

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Feminine

Comment:

A grammatical class of nouns whose members tend to be perceived of as female.

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First

Comment:

Refers to the speaker and one or more nonparticipants, but not hearer(s). Contrasts with FirstPersonInclusive (Crystal 1997: 285).

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FirstExclusive

Comment:

Refers to the speaker and one or more nonparticipants, but not hearer(s). Contrasts with FirstPersonInclusive (Crystal 1997: 285).

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FirstInclusive

Comment:

Refers to the speaker, hearer(s) and possibly others. Contrasts with FirstPersonExclusive (Crystal 1997: 285).

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FocusAntipassive

Comment:

Blocks the P or logical object (basic absolutive) nominal from being assigned Focus salience. Topic salience is available for assignment to various arguments, including the P, but Focus salience is always assigned to A, and is therefore inaccessible to P or any other nominal.
(Klaiman 1991:236)

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Folklore

Comment:

FolkloreEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through legend, folklore or some other established tradition (Palmer 2001: 40).

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ForceFeature

Comment:

Force expresses the speech act associated with a proposition. Among the traditionally defined values are Declarative, Imperative and Interrogative. Force is here distinguished from Mood, but there is a close association of Mood with Force values, e.g. between IndicativeMood and DeclarativeForce.

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ForceValue

Comment:

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FreeStem

Comment:

FreeStem is the class of form units whose members are decomposable into a root or roots and a derivational unit. They are expressed by the free forms of the language (Crystal 1985:287; Mish et al. 1990:1154).

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Frequentive

Comment:

Events which are frequently repeated, differs from habitual in that it can only be based upon the observation of several occurrences of the event concerned, whereas habitual can be based upon the observation of a single occurrence (Bhat 1999: 53).

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Future

Comment:

FutureTense locates the situation in question later than the present moment (time of speaking.)

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FutureInFuture

Comment:

FutureInFutureTense locates the situation in question in the future, relative to a temporal reference point that itself is located in the future relative to the moment of utterance.

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FutureInPast

Comment:

FutureInPastTense locates the situation in question in the future, relative to a contextually determined temporal reference point that itself must be located in the past relative to the moment of utterance.

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GenderFeature

Comment:

GenderFeature the class of all grammatical genders found in language. It may be best subsumed under a more general class for noun classification.

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GenderValue

Comment:

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Genitive

Comment:

GenitiveCase is used to mark the noun whose referent is the possessor of the referent of another noun (Crystal 1980: 161; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 9495,180; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 82,172; Anderson 1985: 185; Mish et al. 1990: 511; Fleming 1988: 10).

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Gerund

Comment:

A part of speech derived from a verb and used as a noun, usually restricted to non-finite forms of the verb (Crystal 1997: 279).

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GrammaticalUnit

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Habitual

Comment:

Refers to the internal temporal contour of a situation — a repeated situation that occupies a large slice of time. Can be based on the observation of a single occurrence.
(Bhat 1999:177)

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Hearsay

Comment:

HearsayEvidentiality, also called third hand, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression from a source generally considered less reliable than with a SecondHandEvidential (Palmer 2001: 40).

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HesternalPast

Comment:

HesternalPastTense locates the situation in question somewhere in the span beginning with the period defined culturally as 'yesterday' and extends back through some period that is considered nonremote (Comrie 1985:87-88; Dahl 1985:126).

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HodiernalFuture

Comment:

HodiernalFutureTense locates the situation in question after the moment of utterance within the span culturally defined as 'today' (Comrie 1985: 86; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 247).

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HodiernalPast

Comment:

HodiernalPastTense locates the situation in question before the moment of utterance within the span culturally defined as 'today' (Comrie 1985:87; Dahl 1985:125-126). Contrasts with PreHodiernalPastTense.

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Hortatory

Comment:

HortatoryForce indicates that the hearer, possibly together with speaker, is admonished or to allow others to take action.

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Illative

Comment:

IllativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location into which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'into' (Lyons 1968: 299; Gove, et al. 1966: 1126; Crystal 1985: 152).

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ImmediateFuture

Comment:

ImmediateFutureTense, also called 'close future', locates the situation in question shortly after the moment of utterance (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:94; Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 244-245).

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ImmediatePast

Comment:

ImmediatePastTense locates the situation in question at a time considered very recent in relation to the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985: 87).

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ImperativeForce

Comment:

ImperativeForce indicates that the speaker requests or demands action on the part of the hearer.

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Imperfective

Comment:

A viewpoint aspect which encodes the speaker’s lack of attention to the endpoints of the situation referred to. Imperfective aspect is the prototypical mode of presentation for states (Michaelis 1998:xiv).

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ImpersonalPassive

Comment:

A Passive that alters the mapping of a nominal to the Subject relation in a basic intransitive structure (Klaiman 1991:23)

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Inablative

Comment:

InablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from within which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from within'.

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Inallative

Comment:

InallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is inside the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards in(side)'.

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Inanimate

Comment:

One of the two grammatical genders, or noun classes, of Nishnaabemwin, the other being animate. Membership in the inanimate grammatical class is largely based on meaning, in that non-living things, such as objects of manufacture and natural 'non-living' things are included in it (Valentine 2001: 114).

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Inceptive

Comment:

InceptiveAspect, also called the ingressive, encodes the beginning portion of some event (Bybee 1985: 147, 149; Payne 1997: 240; Bhat 1999:176).

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IncorporatingAntipassive

Comment:

Blocks the P or logical object (basic absolutive) nominal from being assigned Focus salience. This correlates with the P's morphosyntactic downgrading, whereby it becomes insusceptible to any informational salience assignment. (Klaiman 1991:236)

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IndefiniteArticle

Comment:

An article is a part of speech whose members are used to refer to an entity (or class of entities) which is not capable of specific identification (Crystal 1997:193).

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IndefinitePronoun

Comment:

An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun that belongs to a class whose members indicate indefinite reference (Crystal 1997: 312; Mish et al. 1990:612).

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Indicative

Comment:

IndicativeMood indicates that the speaker believes the expression to be true.

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Indirect

Comment:

IndirectEvidentiality, also called reported, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression from a source other than by experiencing the situation directly (Palmer 2001: 40).

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Inessive

Comment:

InessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location within which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'within' or 'inside' (Lyons 1968: 299; Gove, et al. 1966: 1156; Crystal 1985: 156). X in Y.

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Inferential

Comment:

InferentialEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression through some kind of internal inference procedure, e.g., deduction, abduction, induction (Palmer 2001: 6-8).

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InflectedWord

Comment:

A free form of a language consiting of a root or stem plus at least one inflectional unit.

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InflectionalUnit

Comment:

InflectionalUnit is the class of sublexical unit whose members designate such grammatical categories as tense, aspect, mood etc. The various forms of an InflectionalUnit plus the stem forms a grammatical paradigm and express a grammatical contrast that is obligatory for its stem's part of speech in some given grammatical context. An InflectionalUnit does not alter the partOfSpeech feature of the Root or Stem it attaches to. It is typically located farther from its Root than a derivational unit and produces a predictable, nonidiosyncratic change of meaning (Crystal 1980:184; Hartmann and Stork 1972:112; Mish et al. 1990:620; Bybee 1985:2, 99).

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Informational

Comment:

InformationalForce indicates that the hearer is to relate to the informational content of what is expressed. Subsumes Declarative, Speculative and Interrogative.

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Instrumental

Comment:

InstrumentalCase indicates that the referent of the noun it marks is the means of the accomplishment of the action expressed by the clause (Crystal 1980: 187; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 114; Mish et al. 1990: 627).

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Interablative

Comment:

InterablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from between which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from inbetween'.

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Interallative

Comment:

InterallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is in the middle of the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the middle of'.

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Interessive

Comment:

InteressiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location between which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'between'.

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Interjection

Comment:

An interjection is a part of speech, typically brief in form, such as one syllable or word, whose members are used most often as exclamations or parts of an exclamation. An interjection, typically expressing an emotional reaction, often with respect to an accompanying sentence, is not syntactically related to other accompanying expressions, and may include a combination of sounds not otherwise found in the language (Crystal 1997:200).

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Interlative

Comment:

InterlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location between which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'to the middle of'.

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Interminative

Comment:

'into in(side of)'.

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InterrogativeForce

Comment:

InterrogativeForce indicates that the speaker lacks certain knowledge about what is expressed, and may thereby be seeking information from the hearer. In that case, it is equivalent to a type of imperative: "Tell me ...".

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InterrogativeProform

Comment:

An InterrogativeProform is a Proform that is used in questions to stand for the item questioned.

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Interterminative

Comment:

InterterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the middle of the referent of the noun it marks, but not through it. It has the meaning 'into the middle of'.

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Intertranslative

Comment:

IntertranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving along a trajectory between the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along the in between.

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IntransitiveVerb

Comment:

An intransitive verb is a verb that cannot take a direct object, and describes a property, state, or situation involving only one participant (Crystal 1997:397; Payne 1997:171).

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Intranslative

Comment:

IntranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving through the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along through'.

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InverseVoice

Comment:

Signals when actions proceed from ontologically less salient to more salient participants (Klaiman 1991:32)

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Iterative

Comment:

IterativeAspect, also called repetitives, encodes a number of events of the same type that are repeated on a particular occasion. The time interval which is relevant to the iterative is relatively shorter than in the case of the habitual (Bybee 1985: 150; Bybee, Perkins and Pagliuca 1994: 127). Portrays events repeated on the same occasion (like the iterative knocking on the door) (Bhat 1999: 53)

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Jussive

Comment:

JussiveForce indicates a request for permission to take action.

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LargePlural

Comment:

LargePlural is used in a number system together with Singular and Dual or with SmallPaucal.

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Lative

Comment:

LativeCase expresses 'motion up to the location of,' or 'as far as' the referent of the noun it marks (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 121; Gove, et al. 1966: 1277).

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LexicalItem

Comment:

The information structure used to encode all the information associated with an entry in a dictionary.

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Lexicon

Comment:

A collection of LexicalItems.

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LinguisticDataStructure

Comment:

A linguistic data structure is an abstract container for grouping together instances of linguistic data, usually to suit a particular theory or computational implementation. Examples include: feature structures, lexical entries, and paradigms.

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LinguisticFeature

Comment:

LinguisticFeature, also called 'property', 'quality' or 'feature name', is the class of features that may be associated with units relevant to a linguistic systems. e.g., the feature 'tense' has values: 'past', 'present', ..., 'future'. In the broader domain, the class 'feature' can be thought of as the set of qualities associated with some object in general, e.g., color, size, shape, etc. (Shieber 1986: 12; Gaerdenfors 2000; Masolo et al. 2002).
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LinguisticFeatureValue is the class of values that may be associated with instances of linguistic feature. That is, specific features have specific feature values associated with them, e.g., the feature 'tense' has 'past', 'present', ..., 'future' as values. In the broader domain, the class of LinguisticFeatureValue can be thought of as the set of qualia associated with some feature in general, a point in cognitive space. E.g., red is a quale in color space (Shieber 1986: 12; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001; Gaerdenfors 2000; Masolo et al. 2002).

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LinguisticSign

Comment:

A sign is an abstract structure whose instances participate in a linguistic system, or `language'. By definition, a linguistic sign must have a form component (whose elements are phonological units), a grammatical component (whose elements are grammatical units), and a meaning component (whose elements are semantic units). The formal structure of a linguistic sign is determined by the grammar of a language. The information value of a linguistic sign, its meaning, is not fixed, but determined by the conventions of the language. The relation of form to meaning is largely arbitrary within a semiotic system. Signs are classified primarily according to what kinds of formal relations they participate in, and, secondly, according to theircomplexity (whether they are atomic or composed of other signs). Signs range from morphological and syntactic constructions to whole discourse segments (Saussure 1955; Hervey 1979; Pollard and Sag 1994).

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Locational

Comment:

Category of case that denotes that the referent of the noun it marks is a location.

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LocativePassive

Comment:

An oblique locative nominal assumes the subject relation.
(Klaiman 1991:17)

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MainClause

Comment:

A main clause is an independent clause that can stand on its own as a sentence. If a sentence contains any embedded clauses, the main clause is understood as the matrix plus the embedded clauses. In the sentence 'John thinks that Mary is sick', 'John thinks that Mary is sick' is the main clause (Crystal 2001: 231).

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Malefactive

Comment:

Opposite of BenefactiveCase; used when the marked noun is negatively affected in the clause.

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Masculine

Comment:

A grammatical class of nouns whose members tend to be perceived of as male.

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MentalAbilitive

Comment:

MentalAbilitiveModality indicates that an agent has the capacity to perform some mental action (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 192; Palmer 2001: 77).

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ModalityFeature

Comment:

Modality is the theory of possibility and necessity. As a grammatical feature, it represents those dimensions in the domains of knowledge (epistemic modality), social relations (deontic modality) and ability (abilitive modality), and possibly others.

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ModalityValue

Comment:

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MoodFeature

Comment:

Mood, also known as Force, expresses the grammatical mood or force of a proposition. Among the traditionally defined values are Declarative, Imperative and Interrogative. These values are a somewhat mixed bag of attitutude (e.g. optative, volitive, subjunctive) and speech-act (e.g. imperative, commissive) values. It may be desirable to separate them out.

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MoodValue

Comment:

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MorphologicalUnit

Comment:

The form units below the level of the syntactic word, i.e. those form units not participating in syntactic relations, but only morphological relations. That is, a morphological unit cannot occupy a lexical position in a syntactic construction. Morphological units are the smallest form units that have a meaning. In some theories, these correspond to the notion of morphemes or constructions. In a feature system, these elements carry morphological or morphosyntactic features.

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MorphosyntacticFeature

Comment:

Also called 'grammatical categories', or 'grams', a morphosyntactic feature is the class of linguistic features inhering in form units. Morphosyntactic features give form units their morphosyntactic behavior in a grammar. E.g., two form units can 'agree' according to shared form features. This class is intended to represent only the formal aspects of morphosyntax; that is, there is no notional component. In a grammatical system, attributes of the same type express meanings from the same conceptual domain. That is, they occur in contrast to one another other, and are typically expressed in the same fashion (Crystal 1985: 43-44; Hopper, P. 1992: 81, Bybee 1985: 191).
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FormFeatureValue is the class of values that may be associated with instances of FormFeature. In a FeatureSystem, these dictate the formal properties of the grammar and may or may not be true semantically. A set of FeatureValues forms an integral part of a language's FeatureSystem (Pollard and Sag 1994; Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

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Multal

Comment:

Multal refers to a large number of individuals.

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MultiplicativeNumeral

Comment:

A multiplicative numeral is a numeral that expresses how many fold or how many times (Pei and Gaynor 1954:149; Hartmann and Stork 1972:147).

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NearFuture

Comment:

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NecessitativePassive

Comment:

A passive in Irish in which the preposition "with" is used, and a semantic meaning of necessity is added. (Noonan 1994:280)

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Necessity

Comment:

NecessityModality indicates that the described state of affairs is necessary, either directly, or because of a requirement on the part of an agent.

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Negative

Comment:

A construction that expresses the contradiction of some or all of a proposition (Crystal 1980: 257). Note: this value is not to be confused with the notion "Negative Polarity Item", which is an expression that occurs in the scope of Negation (i.e. Negative Polarity).

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Nominal

Comment:

A nominal is a partOfSpeech whose members differ grammatically from a substantive but which functions as one (Crystal 1997:260; Mish et al. 1990:801).

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NominalParticle

Comment:

A nominal particle is a member of a closed class of particles that co-occur with nouns.

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Nominative

Comment:

NominativeCase identifies clause subjects in nominative-accusative languages. It is usually the unmarked case. Nouns used in isolation often have this case (Crystal 1980: 242; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 147; Mish et al. 1990: 801; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 224).

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NonabsolutiveAntipassive

Comment:

An Antipassive in which the P or logical object is overtly downgraded. (Klaiman 1991:232)

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NonFuture

Comment:

NonFutureTense locates the situation in question at or before the moment of utterance, and contrasts with a FutureTense (Comrie 1985: 49).

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NonPast

Comment:

NonPastTense locates the situation in question at or after the moment of utterance, and contrasts with a past tense (Comrie 1985:48-49).

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NonpromotionalInverse

Comment:

Involves demotion of the non-topical obviate-agent from subjecthood. (Givon 1994:24)

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NonVisual

Comment:

OtherThanVisualEvidentiality encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression directly in a way other than through visual experience; they heard it, smelled it, tasted it, etc. (Palmer 2001: 36, 57).

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Noun

Comment:

A noun is a broad classification of parts of speech which include substantives and nominals (Crystal 1997:371; Mish et al. 1990:1176).

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NucleonicMiddle

Comment:

Object of action belongs to. Moves into, or moves from sphere of subject.
(Siewierska 1988:257)

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NumberFeature

Comment:

Number is a grammatical category often found on nouns, pronouns, and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions--such as 'one' or 'more than one'. The count distinctions typically, but not always, correspond to the actual count of the referents of the marked noun or Pronoun (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 155; Mish et al. 1990: 811).

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NumberValue

Comment:

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Numeral

Comment:

A numeral is a partOfSpeech whose members function most typically as adjectives or pronouns and express a number, or relation to the number, such as one of the following: quantity, sequence, frequency, fraction (Hartmann and Stork 1972:155; Pei and Gaynor 1954:149).

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Object

Comment:

Any entity that is stable throughout time and has other objects as parts. At any point in time, an object is wholly present.

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Obligative

Comment:

ObligativeModality indicates that an agent is required to perform the action expressed by the predicate (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 177; Palmer 2001: 71).

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ObliquePassive

Comment:

A Passive in which a basic Oblique nominal assumes the Subject relation in a corresponding nonbasic configuration. Can include locative passives, benefactive passives and instrumental passives. (Klaiman 1991:23)

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Optative

Comment:

Optative indicates that the speaker wishes or hopes that the expressed proposition be the case (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 179; Palmer 2001: 204).

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OrdinalNumeral

Comment:

An ordinal numeral is a numeral belonging to a class whose members designate positions in a sequence (Crystal 1997:272; Mish et al. 1990:831).

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OrthographicExpression

Comment:

An OrthographicExpression is composed of the standard characters of an orthographic system. In a Romanized system, it is the 'spelling' associated with some word. An OrthographicExpression is governed by the orthographic combinatorial rules of a particular language. OrthographicExpressions are not transcriptions of any external entity, but independent linguistic expressions which refer directly to the LinguisticUnits of the language. They are the physical realizations of some human language, possibly no longer spoken.

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OrthographicPart

Comment:

OrthPart is the subclass of OrthographicExpression whose members are not orthographically independent, that is, they cannot stand alone as words but compose to form words. Note that an OrthPart is not the same as a single character. Although, some OrthParts are single characters.

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OrthographicPhrase

Comment:

An OrthPhrase is a concatenation of one or more instances of OrthWord.

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OrthographicSentence

Comment:

A special type of OthPhrase usually representing a Clause. In Western writing systems, an OrthSentence is set off by white space on the left edge and some kind of puncuation, such as a period or question mark, on the right.

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OrthographicWord

Comment:

An OrthWord is the fundamental unit of an orthography, usually set off by white space.

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OtherSource

Comment:

OtherSourceEvidentiality indicates that the agent relies on another source for theirbelief in what they say.

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Particle

Comment:

A particle is a part of speech whose members do not belong to one of the main classes of words, is invariable, and typically has grammatical or pragmatic meaning.

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PartiitiveNumeral

Comment:

A partitive numeral is a numeral that expresses a fraction (Pei and Gaynor 1954:149; Hartmann and Stork 1972:165).

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Partitive

Comment:

PartitiveCase expresses the partial nature of the referent of the noun it marks, as opposed to expressing the whole unit or class of which the referent is a part. This case may be found in items such as the following: existential clauses, nouns that are accompanied by numerals or units of measure, or predications of material from which something is made. It often has a meaning similar to the English word 'some' (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 161; Richards, Platt, and Weber 1985: 208; Quirk, et al. 1985: 249; Gove, et al. 1966: 1648; Sebeok 1946: 1214).

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Passive

Comment:

Associated with actions performed on the subject by an unspecified agent.
(McIntosh 1984:108) Refers to the category of verb forms, typically identifies with a specific morphological marking, that encode the derived diatheses in which the agent role is not linked with a subject noun phrase: Diatheis: D1=(X=AgOb)(Y+SUBabs/nom) (Shibatani 1995:7)

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Past

Comment:

PastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment, with no specification on the distance in time (Comrie 1985).

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PastInFuture

Comment:

Locates the situation in question in the future, prior to a reference time in the future.

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PastInPast

Comment:

Locates the situation in question prior to a reference time in the past. Also known as PluperfectTense.

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Paucal

Comment:

Paucal refers to a few members of a designated class (Crystal 1997: 265). It occurs in a number system together with Multal. It is entailed by SmallPaucal.

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Pejorative

Comment:

A special form of a noun that indicates the speaker regards the person or object being referred to with distaste, contempt, or displeasure (Valentine 2001: 190-193).

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Perfective

Comment:

A viewpoint aspect which encodes the speaker’s willingness to attend to the endpoints of the situation referred to. Perfective aspect is the canonical mode of presentation for events (Michaelis 1998: xv).

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Perlative

Comment:

PerlativeCase expresses that something moved 'through','across', or 'along' the referent of the noun that is marked (Blake 1998: 38, 203).

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Permissive

Comment:

PermissiveModality indicates that an agent has permission to perform the action expressed by the predicate (Palmer 2001: 10, 71).

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PersonalPassive

Comment:

A Passive in which the argument mapped to Object in a basic structural configuration assumes the Subject relation in a corresponding nonbasic configuration. (Klaiman 1991:23)

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PersonalPronoun

Comment:

A personal pronoun is a pronoun that expresses a distinction of person deixis (Mish et al. 1990:878).

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PersonFeature

Comment:

Person indicates the number and nature of the participants in a situation. Usually a three-way contrast is found: first, second, and third person. Other formal distinctions in languages include: inclusive/exlusive, honorific/intimate, and male/female (Crystal 1997: 285).

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PersonValue

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Phasal

Comment:

A set of aspectual distinctions involving relations between a background situation (the reference situation) and a situation located relative to the reference situation (the denoted situation). In English, phasal distinctions are expressed by auxiliary-headed constructions, like the inceptive, progressive, and perfect constructions, whose head verbs express the aspectual class of the denoted situation. The aspectual class of the denoted situation differs from that of the reference situation (Michaelis 1998:xv). An event may have a beginning and an end, a middle portion (continuing or changing), and also an ensuing result or an altered state. These are considered to be the various “phases‽ of an event. A speaker may talk about an event from the point of view of any of these individual phases, and his language may have inflectional (or other type of) markers for representing these distinctions. Since such markers indicate distinctions in the temporal structure of an event, we may regard them as belonging to the category of aspect. It has been suggested (Dik 1989: 186) that these may be grouped under a subcategory (or “level‽) of aspect called “phasal aspect‽. (Bhat 1999:49)

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PhonologicalFeature

Comment:

more later

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PhonologicalUnit

Comment:

A unit of phonological structure, e.g., a phoneme.

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Phrase

Comment:

A phrase is a syntactic construction that consists of more than one LexicalUnit but lacks the subject - predicate organization of a Clause (Crystal 1980: 232-233; Pei and Gaynor 1954: 169; Pike and Pike 1982: 453; and Mish et al. 1990: 886).

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PhysicalAbilitiveModality

Comment:

PhysicalAbilitiveModality indicates that an agent has the physical capacity to perform some action (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 192; Palmer 2001: 77).

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PlainMiddle

Comment:

Results of action occur to subject.
(Siewierska 1988:257)

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Plural

Comment:

Plural refers to more than one member of a designated class. It is used in a number system together with Singular only, as in English. We deprecate the definition in which it refers to any number larger than the largest individual number value in the system, e.g. 'more than two' in some languages (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 178; Crystal 1987: 428; Mish et al. 1990: 906). We recommend LargePlural for systems in which the value is used together with Singular and Dual, and Multal for systems in which the value is used together with Singular, Dual and Trial.

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PolarityFeature

Comment:

We provisionally assume this feature to take on just the values Positive and Negative. As a morphosyntactic feature, generally only Negative is "marked", i.e. associated with a linguistic expression.

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PolarityValue

Comment:

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Positive

Comment:

In general, positive polarity refers to an assertion that contains no marker of negation (Crystal 1980: 299).

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Possessed

Comment:

PossessedCase is used to mark the noun whose referent is possessed by the referent of another noun.

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PossessivePronoun

Comment:

A possessive pronoun is a pronoun that expresses ownership and relationships like ownership, such as kinship, and other forms of association (Crystal 1997:312; Mish et al. 1990:918).

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Possibility

Comment:

PossibilityModality indicates that the designated state of affairs is possible, either directly, or because an agent has the ability or permission to carry it out.

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PostHodiernalFuture

Comment:

PostHodiernalFutureTense locates the situation in question after the span that is culturally defined as 'today' (Bybee, Perkins, and Pagliuca 1994: 247).

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Postposition

Comment:

A postposition is an adposition that occurs after its complement (Crystal 1997:300; Payne 1997:86).

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PragmaticInverse

Comment:

If the agent is more topical than the patient, the direct-active clause is used. If norm is reversed and the patient is more topical, the inverse clause is used. (Givon 1994:23)

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Preferred

Comment:

A special form of a noun that indicates the speaker regards the person or object being referred to with favor or admiration.

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PreHodiernalPast

Comment:

PreHodiernalPastTense locates the situation in question before that of a contrasting HodiernalPastTense. According to Bybee, Perkins, Pagliuca 1994: 98. this category must be defined relative to a HodiernalPastTense.

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Prenoun

Comment:

An element which may be compounded to the front of a noun to signal information such as size, color, etc. (Valentine 2001: 152-154).

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Preposition

Comment:

A preposition is an adposition that occurs before its complement (Crystal 1997:305; Mish et al. 1990:929; Payne 1997:86).

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Present

Comment:

PresentTense locates the situation in question at the present moment (the time of the speech event) (Comrie 1985: 37). Changed name from AbsolutePresentTense since no other "Present" tense value is defined.

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Preverb

Comment:

An element which may be compounded to the front of a verb, to signal information such as tense, direction, etc. (Valentine 2001: 154-158).

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Proadjective

Comment:

A Proadjective is a proForm that substitutes for an adjective or adjective phrase.

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Proadverb

Comment:

A Proadverb is a Proform that substitutes for an adverb or other expression having an adverbial function.

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Process

Comment:

Any entity that is relatively time unstable and has other processes as parts.

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Proclitic

Comment:

A proclitic is a clitic that precedes the lexical unit to which it is phonologically joined (Crystal 1980:64; Hartmann and Stork 1972:185; Pei and Gaynor 1954:176; Mish et al. 1990:938).

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ProForm

Comment:

A ProForm is a partOfSpeech whose members usually substitute for other constituents, including phrases, clauses, or sentences, and whose meaning is recoverable from the linguistic or extralinguistic context (Schachter 1985:24-25; Crystal 1997:310).

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Progressive

Comment:

ProgressiveAspect, also called the continuative or the durative, encodes a single event as an ongoing process. Thus, states cannot generally be encoded with the progressive (Comrie 1976: 32-35; Bybee, Perkins and Pagliuca 1994: 127-139; Payne 1997: 240). An exponent of phasal aspect which expresses a stative situation that holds during the time at which an event is occurring (e. g., He is fixing the fence)
(Michaelis 1998:xv).

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ProgressivePassive

Comment:

A passive in Irish in which the preposition "at" is used, and a semantic meaning of progressive tense is found (Noonan 1994:280)

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PromotionalInverse

Comment:

Involves promotion of the topical proximate-patient to subjecthood. (Givon 1994:24)

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Pronoun

Comment:

A Pronoun is a ProForm which functions like a noun and substitutes for a noun or noun phrase (Crystal 1997:312; Mish et al. 1990:942).

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Quantificational

Comment:

A speaker may report an event as occurring once only (semelfactive) or several times (iterative); he may view it as a specific event or as part of a general habit of carrying out similar events; he may also differentiate between different degrees of frequency with which the event occurs. The markers that a given language provides for one or more of these meaning distinctions can be grouped under a subcategory called “quantificational aspect‽, as all of them refer to the quantitative aspect of the event concerned (Bhat 1999:53).

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Quantifier

Comment:

A quantifier is a determiner that expresses a referent's definite or indefinite number or amount. A quantifier functions as a modifier of a noun, or a pronoun (Crystal 1997:317; Mish et al. 1990:963).

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QuestionParticle

Comment:

A particle is a part of speech whose members signal a yes/no question (Payne 1997:296).

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RecentPast

Comment:

RecentPastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment, but by culturally and situationally defined criteria, usually within the span ranging from yesterday to a week or a few months previous (Comrie 1985:87; Dahl 1985:121-122).

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ReciprocalMiddle

Comment:

Referents of plural subject do action to one another. (Siewierska 1988:257)

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ReciprocalPronoun

Comment:

A reciprocal pronoun is a pronoun that expresses a mutual feeling or action among the referents of a plural subject (Crystal 1997:323; Mish et al. 1990:982).

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ReferentialVoice

Comment:

entails assignment of the absolutive to certain kinds of arguments other than the logical subjects (A) and objects (P), including the dative, benefactive, malefactive, and possessor. (Klaiman 1991:239)

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ReflexiveMiddle

Comment:

Subjects perform action to self. (Siewierska 1988:257)

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ReflexivePassive

Comment:

A Passive construction which contains reflexive markings. (Siewierska 1988:257)

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ReflexivePronoun

Comment:

A reflexive pronoun is a pronoun that has coreference with the subject (Mish et al. 1990:990).

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RelativeFuture

Comment:

RelativeFutureTense locates the situation in question after a contextually determined temporal reference point, regardless of the latter's relation to the moment of utterance. Also called FuturePerfectTense (Comrie 1985:69-71).

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RelativePast

Comment:

RelativePastTense locates the situation in question before that of a contextually determined temporal reference point (Comrie 1985: 104). Also called PastPerfectTense.

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RelativePresent

Comment:

RelativePresentTense locates the situation in question simultaneously with some contextually determined temporal reference point.

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RelativePronoun

Comment:

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that marks a relative clause, functions grammatically within the relative clause, and is coreferential to the word modified by the relative clause (Crystal 1997:329).

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RemoteFuture

Comment:

RemoteFutureTense locates the situation in question at a time that is considered relatively distant. It is characteristically after the span of time culturally defined as 'tomorrow' (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:94).

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RemotePast

Comment:

RemotePastTense locates the situation in question prior to the present moment, usually more than a few days ago (Dahl 1985:121; Comrie 1985:88). Subsumes notion of PreHesternalPast tense, which locates the situation in question before that of an opposing hesternal past tense. (Bybee, Perkins, Pagliuca 1994: 98).

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Second

Comment:

Refers to the person(s) the speaker is addressing (Crystal 1997: 285).

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SecondHand

Comment:

SecondHandEvidentiality, also called the quotative, encodes the fact that the speaker came to believe the content of the expression from communicating with someone else (Palmer 2001: 40).

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SemanticFeature

Comment:

Any linguistic feature that pertains to the semantic content in a linguistic system.

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SemanticInverse

Comment:

If the agent outranks the patient on the relevant generic topic hierarchy, the direct-active clause is used. If the relevant norm is reversed and the patient outranks the agent on the relevant hierarchy, the inverse clause is used. (Givon 1994:23)

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SemanticUnit

Comment:

under construction

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Semelfactive

Comment:

Momentaneous, without an inherent end-point, as sneeze (Michaelis 1998:xvi).

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Several

Comment:

Several is used in a system together with Singular and LargePlural or Multal to refer to a small, non-singular number of individuals.

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SimpleSpecification

Comment:

A SimpleSpecification is a kind of FeatureSpecification whose value must be a simple linguistic attribute (Maxwell, Simons, and Hayashi 2001).

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SimpleSyntacticWord

Comment:

Simple syntactic word is the class of formal units whose members are common to a set of derived or inflected units, if any, when all bound units are removed. They are not further analyzable into meaningful elements, being morphologically simple. Also, they designate the principle portion of meaning of the unit to which it belongs (Crystal 1985:268; Hartmann and Stork 1972:199; Pei and Gaynor 1954:187-188; Mish et al. 1990:1023; Matthews 1991:64).

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Singular

Comment:

Singular refers to one member of a designated class (Crystal 1980: 245; Hartmann and Stork 1972: 210).

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SizeFeature

Comment:

Feature for relative size. Currently only Diminutive and Augmentative defined as possible values. Typically specified "derivationally" rather than by inflection.

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SizeValue

Comment:

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SmallPaucal

Comment:

SmallPaucal occurs in a number system together with LargePlural, referring to a very small number of individuals. It core:entails Paucal and is entailed by both Singular and Dual.

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Speculative

Comment:

SpeculativeForce indicates that the speaker considers, or 'entertains', the content of the expression. That is, it is in the realm of possibility, though the speaker does not necessarilty believe it (Palmer 2001: 6-8, 25).

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StillPresent

Comment:

StillPresentTense is similar to PresentTense but carries the presupposition that an event or state held before the moment of utterance. In positive declarative clauses, still present tense asserts that the event or state holds at the moment of utterance (Comrie 1985: 54; named changed from 'StillTense').

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StructuralDescription

Comment:

This is a data structure commonly associated with morphosyntactic analysis. It is usually represented graphically as a tree.

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Subablative

Comment:

SubablativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from under which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from under'.

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Suballative

Comment:

SuballativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is under the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the region that is under'.

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Subessive

Comment:

SubessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location under which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'under' or 'beneath'.

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Subjunctive

Comment:

SubjunctiveMood indicates that the expression is not believed to be true.

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Sublative

Comment:

SublativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location under which another referent is moving toward. It has the meaning 'towards the underneath of'.

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SubordinateClause

Comment:

A subordinate clause is a dependent clause that cannot stand on its own as a sentence. A matrix clause combined with a subordinate clause form a clause. In the sentence 'John thinks that Mary is sick', 'Mary is sick' is the subordinate clause.

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SubordinatingConnective

Comment:

A subordinating connective is a connective that links constructions by making one of them a constituent of another. The subordinating conjunction typically marks the incorporated constituent (Crystal 1997:370; Mish et al. 1990:1175).

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• gold:Adverbializer

  Comment:

  An adverbializer is a subordinating connective that links a subordinate clause to a main clause, and indicates that the subordinate clause has an 'adverbial' or interpropositional relation to the main clause, indicating purpose, condition, time, and location.

  
  
• gold:Complementizer

  Comment:

  A complementizer is a connective which marks a complement clause (Crystal 1997:75).

  
  
• gold:Relativizer

  Comment:

  A relativizer is a subordinating connective that links a relative clause to its head noun. It is distinguishable from a relative pronoun in that it does not have a nominal function within the relative clause (Payne1997:332)

  
  

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Substantive

Comment:

A substantive is a member of the syntactic class in which the names of physical, concrete, relatively unchanging experiences are most typically found whose members may act as subjects and objects, and most of whose members have inherently determined grammatical gender (in languages which inflect for gender) (Crystal 1997:264; Mish et al. 1990:808; GivÃ〓Â〓³n 1984:51-52; Payne 1997:33).

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Subterminative

Comment:

SubterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the region under the referent of the noun it marks, but not through that region. It has the meaning 'into the region under'.

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Subtranslative

Comment:

SubtranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving along a trajectory underneath the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along the region underneath'. Unfortunate name clash with 'Superlative' as a feature of adjectives.

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Superablative

Comment:

Superablative expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location from over which another referent is moving. It has the meaning 'from over'.

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Superallative

Comment:

SuperallativeCase expresses that something is moving toward the region that is above the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'towards the region that is over'.

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Superessive

Comment:

SuperessiveCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location on which another referent exists. It has the meaning of 'on' or 'upon'. (Pei and Gaynor 1954: 207, Gove, et al. 1966: 2293).

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Superlative

Comment:

SuperlativeCase expresses that the referent of the noun it marks is the location onto which another referent is moving. It has the meaning of 'onto'. Unfortunate name clash with 'Superlative' as a property of adjectives.

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Superterminative

Comment:

SuperterminativeCase expresses the notion of something moving into the region over the referent of the noun it marks, but not through that region. It has the meaning 'into the region over'.

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Supertranslative

Comment:

SupertranslativeCase expresses the notion of something moving along a trajectory above the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'along the region over'.

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SymbolicString

Comment:

SymbolicString is a very general category subsuming any entity which is the product writing process. Instances are usually symbolic, either part of the orthographic or other conventional system. NOTE: there is significant room here for expanding the ontology, that is, to account for different types of orthographies: e.g., hieroglyphs, Unicode characters, Chinese characters, Roman alphabetic characters etc.

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SyntacticConstruction

Comment:

Syntactic constructions are elements of syntactic structure that consist of more than one syntactic word or phrase in some syntactic configuration (Crystal 1980: 85-86).

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SyntacticUnit

Comment:

A form unit that participates in syntactic relations. These are classified according to structural complexity, i.e. syntactically complex or simple (lexical).

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SyntacticWord

Comment:

SyntacticWord is a syntactic unit occupying the lowest position in a syntactic construction. They are expressed as elements, or words, in a language. They are sometimes identifiable according to such criteria as: (1) they are the minimal possible units in a reply; (2) their phonological expressions have features such as a regular stress pattern, and phonological changes conditioned by or blocked at Word boundaries; (3) they are the largest units resistant to insertion of new constituents within their boundaries; or (4) they are the smallest constituents that can be moved within a Sentence without making the Sentence ungrammatical (Hartmann and Stork 1972: 256; Crystal 1980: 168, 383, 384; Cruse 1986: 3536; Mish et al. 1990: 1358; Pike and Pike 1982: 462).

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TenseFeature

Comment:

Tense is the grammatical encoding of an event's location in time. It is typically marked on the verb and deictically refers to the time of the event or state denoted by the verb in relation to some other temporal reference point (Comrie 1985: 9; Crystal 1987: 384).

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TenseValue

Comment:

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Term

Comment:

This class includes includes any expression that is not conventially a part of a written language, but is used to name various features, values, and other linguistic constructs. Terms are used in interlinear text, often on the second line, to annotate or 'gloss' transcriptions, e.g., '1st' or 'NOM'.

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Terminative

Comment:

Denotes the termination of an event (Bhat 1999: 92).

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TerminativeCase

Comment:

TerminativeCase expresses the notion of something into but not further than (ie, not through) the referent of the noun it marks. It has the meaning 'into but not through'.

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TextUnit

Comment:

A text is a linguistic sign above the level of the clause, that is, at the discourse level. Relations that hold among various Texts include discourse constituency relations. Note that text is distinct from DiscourseSegement, the corresponding semantic unit at the level of discourse.

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Third

Comment:

Refers to nonparticipants (other than the speaker or hearer(s)), i.e. other people, things, animals, etc. (Crystal 1997: 285).

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ThirdObviative

Comment:

Obviative refers to one or more non-participants that are in some way further removed from the speaker than other non-particpants.

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ThirdProximative

Comment:

Proximative refers to one or more non-participants that are in some way distinct/closer to the speaker than other non-particpants.

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Timitive

Comment:

TimitiveMood encodes that the speaker fears something expressed in what is said (Palmer 2001: 13, 22).

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